#1Indigenous Chihuahua: Four Centuries of Conflict by John P. Schmal October 2019 Copyright 2019 by John P. Schmal. All Rights Reserved.#2Chihuahua Among the Northwestern Mexican States Arizona New Mexico Mexicali Puerto Peñasco Baja California Pacific Ocean 100 Kilometars 100 Miles Tucson El Paso Juarez Heroica Nogales Ascensión Sonora Guaymas La Paz Navojoa Namiquipa Chihuaua Odess UNITED STATES Saucillo Coahuila Hidalgo del Parral Los Mochis Sinaloa Mazatlán Northern Mexico Source: WikiVoyage, "Northern Mexico." Copyright 2019 by John P. Schmal. All Rights Reserved. Durango Lerdo Durango Moncic Salt The Bajío Pacific Coast 2#3Northern Mexico's Mountainous Regions The Sierra Madre Occidental Mountains run from south of the Tijuana Mexicali Tucson Arizona-Sonora border southeast through eastern Sonora, western Chihuahua, Sinaloa, Durango, Zacatecas, Jalisco and farther south. The Sierra Madre Oriental Mountains run parallel to the Sierra Madre Occidental range on the eastern side of the country. The areas colored in deep green are the highest mountains within the country. Mountains account for over one-third of Chihuahua's surface area and over 71% of Durango's surface and are rich in minerals important to Mexico's mining industry. fic an ja Nogales Hermosillo Guaymas Copper Canyon United States El Paso Ciudad of America Rio Juarez Grande San Ho Chihuahua Antonio Nuevo Conchos Laredo Brown Mexico Monterrey Mata Occiddental Sierra Madre, eninsula Gulf of California Cen Sier erra Oriental Madre Aguascalientes Tampi Leon Puerto Vallarta Guadalajara Mexico City Manzanillo Puebla Volcan La Paz- Cabo San Lucas Mazatlan Durango Marias Islands Revillagigedo Islands Sie Online Map Source: https://www.worldatlas.com/webimage/countrys/namerica/mx.htm. Copyright © 2019 by John P. Schmal. All Rights Reserved. 3#4The Sierra Tarahumara Range The Sierra Tarahumara Range is the name for the region of the Sierra Madre beginning at the Durango border and extending north. This is a dramatic landscape of steep mountains formed by a high plateau that has been cut through with canyons, including Copper Canyon. It is within this range that the Rarámuri (Tarahumara) people sought refuge as Spanish settlements and mining camps began to flourish and after several failed revolts. Other indigenous groups that inhabit this range are the Dami (Northern Tepehuán), O'óba (Mountain Pima), and Guarijío. ША Source: Wikipedia, "Sierra Madre Occidental." 110° Carmen Ciudad Juárez Gulf of California Mayo varta Sinaina Conchos Grande COBRE CANYON MAPIMI BASIN SIERRA del Parral Culiacan Hidalgo Nazas MI D NO metres ELEVATION feet International boundaries 3000 9,843 State 2000 6,562 boundaries 1000 3,281 Intermittent 500 1,640 rivers 200 656 Dams 0 0 Copyright 2019 by John P. Schmal. ▲ Spot elevations All Rights Reserved. in metres 4#5Chihuahua in 2010 Sonora Sinaloa -E Estados Unidos de América Coahuila Chihuahua is the largest state in Mexico. Area: 247,455 square km. Percent of Mexico's Territory: 12.6% No. of Municipios: 67 2010 Population: 3.6 million inhabitants Percent of Mexican Population: 3.2% Capital: The City of Chihuahua The Capital City of Chihuahua had 809,232 inhabitants in 2010, representing one-quarter (22.8%) of the state's total population. Durango Copyright 2019 by John P. Schmal. All Rights Reserved. 5#6Chihuahua's Relief The University of Arizona anthropologist, Professor Anna Maria Alonso states that Chihuahua is 45% desert, 30% dry grassland and oak savanna, and 25% pine forest and subtropical deciduous forest. As a result, only 5 percent of its land area is suitable for crops. Much of western, central and southern Chihuahua are dominated by the Sierra Madre Occidental Mountain Range, which occupies 43% of the surface area of the state. Northern and eastern parts of the state are part of the Chihuahua Desert, which represents part of the Central Plateau which runs southeastward into Coahuila, Durango, Zacatecas and San Luis Potosi. The sierras, deserts and plains that dominate the north and east take up about 57% of the surface area of the state. Sonora Sinaloa Estados Unidos de América Durango Sierra Madre Occidental Sierras y Llanuras del Norte Coahuila Sources: Cuéntame, Página de inicio / Información por entidad / Chihuahua; INEGI. Anuario Estadístico y Geográfico de Guanajuato 2017. Copyright 2019 by John P. Schmal. All Rights Reserved.#7Chihuahua's Indigenous People at Contact The historical geographer Peter Gerhard (1920-2006) estimated a Nueva Vizcaya indigenous population of 344,500 in 1550. By 1700, the population would drop to under 100,000, due to war and epidemics from "Old World diseases." According to the American anthropologist, Edward H. Spicer (1906-1983), the Spaniards recognized the following as the primary language groups in Chihuahua: Tarahumaras Janos Warihios (Guarijios) Conchos Sumas Tobosos Apaches (who arrived in the area by the 1650s and increased their presence in the 1700s) William B. Griffen's "Indian Assimilation in the Franciscan Area of Nueva Vizcaya❞ provided 127 tribal names for indigenous bands and tribal groups in the area the Spaniards referred to as the "Greater Conchería." However, because this list included "possible alternate designations" of some groups, Griffen only offers detailed descriptions of 89 bands and tribal groups in all. However, Griffen also cautions that a large number of these groups "are not placeable, linguistically or geographically, except within rather broad limits." Source: William B. Griffen, Indian Assimilation in the Franciscan Area of Nueva Vizcaya. Anthropological Papers of the University of Arizona Number 33. Copyright 2019 by John P. Schmal. All Rights Reserved. 7#8Indigenous Tribes of Chihuahua at Contact Of the original Chihuahua tribes at contact, only the Tepehuanes, Tarahumaras, Pimas and Guarajío in the south and west still survive as cultural entities in the present day. Norte Tribus Riberas y noroeste del río Bravo A lo largo del río Conchos En el sur y En las Barrancas oeste En el desierto parte del Bolsón de Mapimí Sumas Jovas Jumanos Jumanos Cholomes Chinarras Janos Conchos Pimas bajos Piros Jumiles Tarahumaras Mansos Conejos Joyas Puliques Tepehuanes Tubares Guarojíos Chínipas Guazapares Guarojíos Chisos Tobosos Tontos Source: Secretaría de Educación, Cultura y Deporte, Cultura y Deporte del Estado de Chihuahua, "Descubriendo Chihuahua a Través de su Historia" (2014). Copyright 2019 by John P. Schmal. All Rights Reserved. 8#9Indigenous Chihuahua: Tribal Distribution This Wikipedia map shows the tribal groups in northern and central Chihuahua in the early colonial period. The coming of the Apaches in later centuries caused even more profound changes that helped lead to the cultural extinction of most of these tribes and their languages. ONORA Janos Jumas Jovas Sumas Mansos TEXAS Navacoyanos Obomes Yakchicahuas Olobamaguames Mamites Obomosios Yaochanes Abasopalmes Chisos Coyamites Guamichicoramas Topacolmes Bachilmis Guelasiquicmes Conchos Yeguacat Julimes Chinarras Source: Source: Wikipedia, "Conchos." Online: https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conchos [Accessed 6-15-2017]. Copyright 2019 by John P. Schmal. All Rights Reserved. 6#10Indigenous Chihuahua: Tribal Distribution The following Wikipedia map shows the tribal distribution in southern and central Chihuahua in the early colonial period. However, over time, the Spanish mission system and the silver industry altered the dynamics of this tribal environment significantly. SONORA eguacat Chinarras Conejos Cacalotitos Tarahumaras Baopapas Pimas Aycalmes Cocoyomes Posalmes Polacmes Sucayis COAHUILA Guiaquitas Mesquites Chinipas Tobosos Yaculsaris Sisimbles Guazapares SINALOA Source: Source: Wikipedia, "Conchos." Online: https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conchos [Accessed 6-15-2017]. Tepehuanes DURANGO Osatayogliglas Copyright © 2019 by John P. Schmal. All Rights Reserved. 10#11Chihuahua's Primary Indigenous Groups Conchos: Named for the Spanish word for "shells," the Conchos lived near the junction of the Rio Concho and Rio Grande Rivers in northern Chihuahua (near the present-day towns of Presidio (Texas) and Ojinaga (Chihuahua). The Spaniards first made contact with the Conchos Indians in 1575, and Franciscan missionaries began working among them in the 1590s. Many of the Conchos opted to cooperate within the Spanish colonial system and were gradually assimilated through the mission system. They are now extinct as a cultural entity. Tobosos: The Tobosos inhabited the middle reaches of the Conchos River, as well as the Bolsón de Mapimí in what is now eastern Chihuahua and western Coahuila. They were associated with the Jumano and frequently raided Spanish settlements. Eventually they were rounded up and deported and were replaced by the Apaches as raiders. They went extinct as a cultural entity by the early Eighteenth Century. Jova: This tribe was affiliated with the Opata and inhabited the upper part of the Valley of the Rio Yaqui in present-day Chihuahua. They are now culturally extinct. Jumanos: The name "Jumanos" was a universal name that was used to identify at least three distinct peoples of the Southwest and South Plains who lived in Texas, New Mexico and Chihuahua. One band of Jumanos inhabited the Rio Grande between the mouth of the Concho River and present day El Paso, extending as far west as Casas Grandes in Chihuahua. They are believed to be related to the Suma Indians, the two names possibly being alternates of each other. They are now extinct. Source: William B. Griffen, "Indian Assimilation in the Franciscan Area of Nueva Vizcaya." Anthropological Papers of the University of Arizona Number 33 (Tucson: The University of Arizona Press, 1979). 11#12Chihuahua's Primary Indigenous Groups Guarijíos (Varohío, Huarijío): The Guarijíos inhabited the Western Sierra Madre Mountains along the headwaters of the Rio Mayo from Rio Chinipas on the east to the border of west central Chihuahua and Sonora. Living in the isolated mountain and canyon country of the western Sierra Madre in Chihuahua, the Guarijíos seemed to prefer settlements of no more than a few families. Their many settlements were isolated from each other by steep mountains and precipitous canyons. In the 2010 census, 2,201 Mexicans spoke the Guarijío language, of which 877 lived in Chihuahua (40%) and another 1,306 lived in Sonora (59%). Mansos: The Mansos inhabited the Rio Grande River Valley from present-day El Paso north to Las Cruces, New Mexico, primarily occupying the present-day municipios of Juarez, Praxedis G. Guerrero, Guadalupe and the northwest section of Ojinaga. The Mansos were also known as the Gorreta (Gorrite) and are now extinct. Sumas (Zumas): The Sumas inhabited a range of territory that extended from the vicinity of present-day El Paso westward across northwestern Chihuahua, including the present municipios of Juárez, Praxedis G. Guerrero, Janos and Nuevo Casas Grandes. The Sumas were hunter-gatherer nomads who practiced little or no farming. Devastated by smallpox in the 1780s, the Sumas entered the Spanish missions near El Paso and Casas Grandes and merged with the mestizo population, while some Sumas gradually merged with the Apaches from the north. They are now extinct as a distinct people. Source: William B. Griffen, "Indian Assimilation in the Franciscan Area of Nueva Vizcaya." Anthropological Papers of the University of Arizona Number 33 (Tucson: The University of Arizona Press, 1979). 12#13The Tepehuanes - The Tepehuanes - the people of the mountains - occupied an extensive area of the Sierra Madre Mountains from northern Jalisco, through present- day Durango, and northward to southern Chihuahua. The first Jesuits, bearing gifts of seeds, tools, clothing and livestock, went to work among the Tepehuanes in 1596. Between 1596 and 1616, eight Jesuit priests had converted the majority of the Tepehuanes. However, epidemics struck the Tepehuanes population in 1594, 1601-02, 1606-07, and 1612- 1615, The epidemics were among the catalysts that led to the Revolt of 1616-1619. The revolt was crushed by the Spaniards, but other revolts followed. In 2010, nearly all of 8,399 Tepehuanes of the North lived in Chihuahua, while most of the 26,453 Tepehuanes of the South lived in Durango. Another 3,040 Tepehuanes were spread around the country, with most of them (1,972 or 65%) living in Nayarit. 0 LOS TEPEHUANES Sources: Susan M. Deeds, "Indigenous Rebellions on the Northern Mexican Mission Frontier: From First-Generation to Later Colonial Responses" (1998); Historia Cultural, "Pueblos Los Tepehuanes." Online: http://www.historiacultural.com/2015/02/pueblo-los- tepehuanes.html Copyright 2019 by John P. Schmal. All Rights Reserved. 13#14FUJIFILM PRO 1805 51341 CJBBFC The Tarahumara The Tarahumara Indians of Chihuahua originally occupied more than 28,000 square miles of mountainous terrain, an area that is larger than West Virginia. Occupying an extensive stretch of the Sierra Madre Mountains, the Tarahumara Indians were ranchería people who planted corn along the ridges of hills and in valleys. The Tarahumara received their first visit from a Jesuit missionary in 1607. But the ranchería settlement pattern of both the Tepehuanes and Tarahumara represented a serious obstacle to the efforts of the missionaries who sought to concentrate them into compact communities close to the missions. The Tarahumara participated in several rebellions and eventually retreated to less accessible canyons and valleys in the Sierra Tarahumara. Today, the Tarahumara are a people whose rich spiritual ideology and strong cultural identity have persevered despite the intrusion of foreign customs. In the 2010 census, 85,316 of Mexico's 89,503 Tarahumara speakers (95.3%) lived in Chihuahua. Palomas Ascensión Janos Ciudad Juárez El Porvenir Rio Grande Sabinal Lucero Río Bravo c Villa Ahumada Jevo Casas Grandes 10 Bas Ricardo Flores Magón Buenaventura Made M aya ero Bocas Urique 10 Barran Guad El Sueco Ojin Ojo de Laguna Coyame 16 R. Conchos cos Cuauhtémoc Bachiniva Aldama Chihuahua ucito Naica 24 Meoqui La Pe Cd. Delicias La Cruz Cd. Cama Jiménez Valle de Zaragoza assatopilas Guachochi Hidalgo del Parral R. Fuerte El Verge Guadalupe y Ca Sinaloa Redondeados Durango Copyright 2019 by John P. Schmal. All Rights Reserved. 14#15Anspe The Establishment of Nueva Vizcaya For most of the colonial period, Chihuahua was part of the Spanish Province of Nueva Vizcaya. From 1563 to 1565, Francisco de Ibarra traveled through Nueva Vizcaya, constructing settlements of a permanent nature. But the silver industry would soon become the main driver of Spanish settlement. Originally, Nueva Vizcaya CALIFORNIA SINALOA Loreto NUEVA SONORA TEXAS S Antonio COAHUILA Monclova NUEVO Montey LEON SANTANDER Santander VIZCAYA Durango included Sinaloa, Sonora, Durango and Chihuahua. However, Sinaloa and Sonora became a separate province in 1733. After that, Nueva Vizcaya consisted primarily of Chihuahua and Durango. NUEVA GALICIA Map Source: Peter Gerhard, "The North Frontier of New Spain" (1982). Copyright © 2019 by John P. Schmal. All Rights Reserved. NUEV 15#16Mexico's Silver Belt Runs Through Guanajuato Today, Mexico is the world's leading producer of silver with 21% of global production, followed by Peru (15%), China (12%) and Australia and Russia (each 6%). Mexico's "La Faja de Plata” (The Silver Belt) runs 1,000 km from NW of Mexico City to Chihuahua and is the most prolific mining district in the world, with a historical production of more than 10,000 million ounces of silver (311,000 tons). CA AZ NM Many of the major mines now operating in the Silver Belt include Guanajuato, Zacatecas, Fresnillo, Santa Eulalia, Parral, Santa Barbara and San Francisco del Oro, the latter four in Chihuahua. Mexican Silver Belts Pacific Ocean 500 kilometers Texas Durango *Fresnillo *Zacatecas "Guanajuato *Mexico, D.F Source: University of Texas at Dallas, "Colonial Silver- Potosi (Bolivia) and Guanajuato (Mexico)." Copyright 2019 by John P. Schmal. All Rights Reserved. 16#17Establishment of Chihuahua's Silver Industry In 1567, the discovery of silver in Conchos territory made Santa Barbara into a wealthy frontier town of slavers, ranchers, miners, adventurers, and priests. By the 1570s, cattle were introduced, and wheat was planted in the chain of settlements extending from Durango to San Bartolomé (founded in 1569, now known as Valle de Allende). The earliest mining settlements of Chihuahua are shown in the following table. Centro Minero Nombre Actual Año de fundación 1.- Santa Bárbara 2.-San Bartolomé Santa Bárbara 1567 Allende 1574 3.- San José del Parral Hidalgo del Parral 1631 4.-San Francisco del Oro San Francisco del Oro 1650 5.-Santa Rosa de Lima de Cusihuiriachi Cusihuiriachi 1687 6.-Santa Eulalia de Mérida Aquiles Serdán 7.-San Francisco de Cuéllar Chihuahua 8.- Satevó Satevó 1707-1708 1709 1704 Source: Secretaría de Educación, Cultura y Deporte, Cultura y Deporte del Estado de Chihuahua, "Descubriendo Chihuahua a Través de su Historia" (2014). Copyright 2019 by John P. Schmal. All Rights Reserved. 17#18Parral and the Silver Industry In 1631, silver was discovered in Hidalgo de Parral (southern Chihuahua). Peter Gerhard noted "the Parral bonanza of 1631 brought a horde of rowdy elements to a frontier until then little exploited, initiating a period of hostilities with the desert tribes of the north that was to continue, with few interruptions and frequent crescendos of violence, for two centuries and more." By 1635, the population of Parral reached 1,000 españoles and 4,000 Indians and Afro-Mexican slaves. Today, Zacatecas is Mexico's leading silver producing state (46.5% of total), well ahead of Chihuahua (16.6%), Durango (11.3%) and Sonora (6.9%). At the present time, the main silver mining municipality in Chihuahua is Santa Bárbara (3% of the national total). kg 2 500 000г 2 000 000 Sonora Chihuahua Coahuila Durango Zacatecas San Luis Potosí 1 500 000 State of Mexico 1 000 000 500 000 Top seven silver producing states, 2011 Silver production in Mexico, 2011. Data: INEGI. Credit: Tony Burton/Geo-Mexico Source: Peter Gerhard, "The North Frontier of New Spain" (Princeton University Press: 1982); Map Source: "The Geography of Silver Mining in Mexico." Online: http://geo-mexico.com/?tag=mining. Copyright © 2019 by John P. Schmal. All Rights Reserved. 18#19The Mission System of Chihuahua - The Spanish colonial missions — mining towns - together with garrisons and were established by the Jesuit and Franciscan orders as vehicles for spreading Spanish culture and religion (Catholicism). Many indigenous peoples were recruited or forced to work the mission lands. Sited on rivers in rural, agriculturally rich areas of Chihuahua, the adobe-and-wood religious and farming settlements reached their peak in the eighteenth century. Unfortunately, the concentration of so many Indians facilitated the spread of disease among a population that had no immunity to the European diseases. Epidemics were frequent occurrences and reduced many local populations. The expulsion of the Jesuits in 1767 precipitated the abandonment of many of the missions, while natural changes in the course of some rivers forced communities to move with them. Sources: Clara Bargellini, "Misiones y Presidios de Chihuahua" (Gobierno del Estado de Chihuahua, Mexico, 1997); "Chihuahua Missions." Online: https://www.wmf.org/project/chihuahua-missions. CHIN CAMARO Copyright © 2019 by John P. Schmal. All Rights Reserved. 19#20The Earliest Missions of Chihuahua Misión 1. Santa Bárbara 2. San Bartolomé Centros de población: Las Misiones Municipio Actual Santa Bárbara Orden religiosa Fundación franciscana 1565 Valle de Allende Franciscana 1570 The first Spanish mission in 3. San Francisco de Conchos San Francisco de Conchos Franciscana 1604 4. San Pablo Tepehuanes 5. Atotonilco Balleza López Jesuita 1611 Franciscana 1619 Centros de población: Las Misiones Chihuahua Misión was 6. Chinipas established in 7. Guazápares Municipio Actual Chínipas Guaza pares Orden religiosa Fundación Jesuita 1626 Jesuita 1626 1565 at Santa 8. San José del Parral Hidalgo del Parral Franciscana 1632 9. San Francisco de Borja Bárbara. By San Francisco de Borja Jesuita 1639 1673, twenty 10. Zaragoza Valle de Zaragoza Jesuita 1639 missions had 11. Satevó Satevó Jesuita 1640 12. S.P. Conchos Rosales Franciscana 1649 been 13. Santa Isabel Santa Isabel Franciscana 1650 established. 14. Huejotitán Huejotitán Jesuita 1651 15. Chuviscar Chihuahua Franciscana 1653 16. Bachíniva 17. Paso del Norte 18. Casas Grandes 19. Namiquipa 20. San Bernabé Bachíniva Jesuita 1660 Juárez Franciscana 1662 Casas Grandes Franciscana 1662 Namiquipa Cusihuiriachi Jesuita 1663 Jesuita 1673 Source: Secretaría de Educación, Cultura y Deporte, Cultura y Deporte del Estado de Chihuahua, "Descubriendo Chihuahua a Través de su Historia" (2014). Copyright © 2019 by John P. Schmal. All Rights Reserved. 20#21Misión 21. Santa Ana 22. 23. Tomochi By 1752, 53 Spanish 24. Carichi The Mission System of Chihuahua Tutuaca Centros de población: Las Misiones Municipio Actual Satevó Belisario Domínguez Guerrero Carichi Orden religiosa Fundación Jesuita 1674 Jesuita 1675 Jesuita 1675 Jesuita 1675 25. San Lorenzo Buenaventura Jesuita 1676 26. Papigochi Guerrero Jesuita 1676 missions had 27. Nonoava Nonoava Jesuita 1676 28. Sisoguichi Bocoyna Jesuita 1676 been 29. Temósachi Temósachi Jesuita 1676 established in 30. Yepómera Temósachi Jesuita 1676 31. Coyachi Cusihuiriachi Jesuita 1676 Chihuahua: 19 32. Yepachi Temósachi Jesuita 1677 33. Matachi Matachi Jesuita 1677 by the 34. Témoris Guazapares Jesuita 1677 Franciscans, the 35. Loreto Batopilas Jesuita 1677 36. Santo Tomás Guerrero Jesuita 1677 rest by the 37. Cocomorachi Temósachi Jesuita 1678 38. Presidio del Norte Ojinaga Franciscana 1683 Jesuits. But in 39. Carretas Gran Morelos Franciscana 1685 1767, the 40. Moris 41. San Francisco Moris Chihuahua Jesuita 1690 Franciscana 1697 Jesuits were 42. San Cristóbal de Nombre de Dios Chihuahua Franciscana 1697 43. Bocoyna Bocoyna Jesuita 1702 expelled from 44. Tubares Urique Jesuita 1707 Mexico. 45. Guadalupe Guadalupe y Calvo Jesuita 1708 46. Santa Ana de Chinarras Aldama Jesuita 1717 47. Julimes Julimes Franciscana 1718 48. Janos Janos Franciscana 1718 49. Julimes Julimes Franciscana 1718 50. Janos Janos Franciscana 1718 51. Batopilillas Uruachi Jesuita 1719 52. Arisiachi Guerrero Jesuita 1740 53. Coyame Coyame Source: Secretaría de Educación, Cultura y Deporte, Cultura y Deporte del Estado de Chihuahua, "Descubriendo Chihuahua a Través de su Historia” (2014). Franciscana Copyright © 2019 by John P. Schmal. All Rights Reserved. 1752 21#22The Great Northern Revolt (1680s) Between 1666 and 1680, the Salineros, Conchos, Tobosos and Tarahumaras of Chihuahua all rose in rebellion following several droughts, famines and epidemics. The indigenous people of New Mexico also witnessed drought and crop failure with increasing frequency. The result of these events would be The Great Northern Revolt. In 1680, the Pueblos rebelled against the Spaniards in New Mexico. The Spaniards were pushed out of New Mexico down the Rio Grande to present-day El Paso. However, in 1684, as they nursed their wounds in El Paso, more rebellions popped up across much of Chihuahua. From Casas Grandes to El Paso, between 1688 and 1696, revolts against the Spaniards took place among the Conchos, Janos, Jocomes, Sumas, Chinarras, Mansos, Tarahumaras, Pueblos and some Apaches. Eventually effective resistance in both Chihuahua, Sonora and New Mexico was ended after many deaths. The revolts of the late Seventeenth Century led the Spaniards to design a more mobile force that could wage war against swift, fast-moving Indian raiders. Source: William B. Griffen, "Indian Assimilation in the Franciscan Area of Nueva Vizcaya: Anthropological Papers of the University of Arizona Number 33" (Tucson: The University of Arizona Press, 1979). Copyright © 2019 by John P. Schmal. All Rights Reserved. 22#23The Apache Nations Historian Cynthia Radding referred to the Apaches as "diverse bands of hunter-gatherers related linguistically to the Athapaskan speakers of Alaska and western Canada." The Apaches were composed of six regional groups: 1. The Western Apaches (Coyotero) of eastern Arizona 2. the Chiricahua of southwestern New Mexico, southeastern Arizona, Chihuahua and Sonora; 3. the Mescalero of southern New Mexico 4. the Jicarilla of Colorado, northern New Mexico and northwestern Texas 5. the Lipan Apache of New Mexico and Texas 6. the Kiowa Apache of Colorado, Oklahoma, and Texas Gila Western Apache Ute KIOWA APACHE Navajo Rio Grande NUEVO MÉXICO Chiricahua SONORA Rio Grande Conchos KIOWA & YAMPARIKA KOTSOTEKA dary LA ans Canadi COMANCHERIA TENEWA HOIS TEXAS Rio Salado Req Braz CHIHUAHUA Mescalero S. Lipan COAHUILA NUEVO LEÓN FORNIA DURANGO SINALOA Comanche Kiowa ZACATECAS TAMAULIPAS SAN LUIS POTOSÍ Sources: Cynthia Radding, "The Colonial Pact and Changing Ethnic Frontiers in Highland Sonora, 1740-1840," in Donna J. Guy and Thomas E. Sheridan (eds.), Contested Ground: Comparative Frontiers on the Northern and Southern Edges of the Spanish Empire, pp. 52-66. (Tucson: The University of Arizona Press, 1998) Copyright © 2019 by John P. Schmal. All Rights Reserved. 23#24Colonial Presidios of Chihuahua By the 1750s, the Chiricahua Apache began raiding along the mountainous frontier regions of both Sonora and Chihuahua. The pressure of constant warfare waged against the Apaches led the Spanish military to adopt a policy of maintaining armed garrisons of paid soldiers (presidios) in the problem areas. The Apaches did not have a central political structure and each bank functioned as a separate unit. The Spaniards had to deal with each group separately. Presidios durante la colonización Presidio 1. Paso del Río del Norte Nombre Actual Juárez Año de fundación 1683 2. San Francisco de Conchos San Francisco de Conchos 1685 3. Casas Grandes Casas Grandes 1686 4. Janos Janos 1691 5. Santa Catalina Namiquipa 1730 6. Mapimí Mapimí 1730 7. Guajoquilla Jiménez 1751 8. Junta de los Ríos Ojinaga 1751 9. El Carrizal Ahumada 1758 10. San Elizario El Paso, Texas 1772 11. San Carlos Manuel Benavides 1772 12. San Pablo Meoqui 1772 13. San Buenaventura Buenaventura 1776 14. Chihuahua Chihuahua 1776 15. Ancón de Carros Saucillo 1776 16. Julimes Julimes 1776 17. Chorreras Aldama 1776 Source: Secretaría de Educación, Cultura y Deporte, Cultura y Deporte del Estado de Chihuahua, "Descubriendo Chihuahua a Través de su Historia" (2014). 24#25A State of Constant Warfare The Apaches became highly skilled horsemen whose mobility helped them elude presidio troops. But, they had to prey on Spanish settlements in Sonora, Chihuahua and Coahuila to acquire more horses. In 1786, the Spaniards launched their own peace initiative with the Apaches and, by 1790, most of the Apache bands had made peace with the Spanish. Relative peace between the Apaches and the Spaniards and the Mexicans would endure until 1831. After that date, the Apaches would periodically go to war against both the U.S. and Mexico. RIVER TUCSON SAN XAVIER DEL BAC TUBAC TUMACACOR STERN WESTER COYOTERO APACHE EASTERN COYOTERO APACHE SUAMCA SANTA CRUZ TUBUTAMA HERMOSILLO خوفو GOLLON SANTA RITA DEL COBRE COPPER MINES ROBLEDO MIMBRENOS A WARM SPRINGS APACHE Les Playas Aninas Peak SAN BERNARDINO TERRENATE FRONTERAS COCOSPERA IMURIS MAGDALENA CUQUIARACH E NATAGES APACHE R NEW MEXICO CHIHUAHUA PASO DEL NORTE SAN ELEAZARIO Lago de Guzman OUMAN Lage de Sante Moria JANOS BATEPITO CARRETAS CORRAL TOS CHINAPA BAVISPE NACOZAR CASAS GRANDES E del Apache ARISPE CUCURPE OPAT BANAMICHE CUMPAS OPASURA TONIBAVI SATACHI S HORCASITAS SONORA URES TEOPAR ALAMOS MAZATAN SAN MARCIAL GUAYMAS SUAQU BACADEGUACH NACORI RA A HUM Logo de Pelos CARRIZAL GALEAME EL CARMEN Chile Hi SAN BUENAVENTURA JESUS MARIA OLS CO SPANGE Legend PRESIDIOS TOWNS & PLACES OF INTEREST PRESENT DAY POLITICAL BOUNDARIES APACHE PLUNDER TRAILS RIVERS NEW MEXICO TEXAS Ecos MESCALERO APACHE COTOME PRESIDO DEL NORTE ENCINILLAS Lege de Buites LO SILVER ROAD Logo de Les Mexicanos CIUDAD CHIHUAHUA JULIMES Sources: Robert Mario Salmon, "Indian Revolts in Northern New Spain: A Synthesis of Resistance (1680-1786)." Lanham, Maryland: University Press of America, 1991; World Press, "La Apachería en el Siglo XVII" (World Press). Online: https://apacheria.es/la-apacheria-en-el-siglo-xvii/; From the Texas State Historical Association (TSHA), from The University of Virginia; Images included in accordance with Title 17 U.S.C. Section 107. SAN CARLOS RIVEN 25#26Missions as a Place of Refuge Over time, the Apache raids in Chihuahua, Coahuila, Texas and Nuevo León displaced many of the nomadic hunter-gatherer groups. In addition, epidemic diseases depleted the indigenous populations, making them even more vulnerable to their highly-mobile Apache enemy. Eventually, the numerous Spanish missions in the region would provide a refuge for the displaced and declining Indian populations. Each mission village usually became home to dozens of indigenous groups who came from the surrounding areas. The appeal of the mission system to these hunter-gatherers included: 1. The irrigation system promised a more stable supply of food than they normally enjoyed. 2. The presidio - frequently located close to a mission -- offered much greater protection to the refugees from the Apaches. 3. The missionaries and their lay helpers instructed the natives in the Catholic faith and in the elements of Spanish peasant society. The Indians learned various trades, including carpentry, masonry, blacksmithing, and weaving; they also did a great deal of agricultural work. In the mission system, local Indians mixed with displaced groups from Coahuila, Chihuahua and Texas. This displacement created an unusual ethnic mix that led to the assimilation of many of the Northern Mexican Indians. Copyright 2019 by John P. Schmal. All Rights Reserved. 26#27The Comanche-Mexico Wars (1821-1870) The Comanche-Mexico Wars was a series of conflicts from 1821 until 1870 which consisted of large-scale raids from Texas into northern Mexico by Comanches and their Kiowa and Kiowa Apache allies which left thousands of people dead. T. R. Fehrenbach, the author of Comanches: The Destruction of a People, writes that "a long terror descended over the entire frontier, because Spanish organization and institutions were totally unable to cope with war parties of long-striking, swiftly moving Comanches." The Comanche raids were sparked by the declining military capability of Mexico in the turbulent years after it gained independence in 1821, plus a large and growing market in the United States for stolen Mexican horses and cattle. In 1834, Mexico signed its third peace treaty with the Comanches of Texas. However, almost immediately Mexico violated the peace treaty and the Comanches resumed their raids in Chihuahua. In the following year, Sonora, Chihuahua and Durango reestablished bounties for Comanche scalps. Between 1848 and 1853, Mexico filed 366 separate claims for Comanche and Apache raids originating from north of the American border. In the 1840s, Comanche raids became larger, more deadly, and penetrated deeply into Mexico. From September 1840 until March 1841, six Comanche armies numbering between two hundred and eight hundred warriors invaded northern Mexico. Like the Apaches, the Comanches did not have a central leadership. Copyright 2019 by John P. Schmal. All Rights Reserved. 27#28Chihuahua in the 1895 Census In the first national Mexican census of 1895, Chihuahua had 265,546 citizens, of which 19,327 spoke indigenous languages and represented 7.3% of the total population. As noted in the table below, the Tarahumar language was spoken by 94% of Chihuahua's indigenous language speakers. Indigenous Languages Spoken in the State of Chihuahua: 1895 Census Indigenous Language Tarahumara Náhuatl Pima Tepehuanes Other Languages Total Indigenous Speakers Population in 1895 18,174 355 324 286 188 19,327 % of all Indigenous Speakers 94.0% 1.8% 1.7% 1.5% 1.0% 100.0% Source: Dirección General de Estadística, Censo General de la Republica Mexicana. 1895: Resumen General. Mexico: Ministerio de Fomento, 1899, pp. 90-107. Copyright © 2019 by John P. Schmal. 28 All Rights Reserved.#29Chihuahua's Racial Classifications in the 1921 Census Mexico's 1921 census asked people to categorize themselves by three primary categories: Pure Indigenous, Indigenous Mixed with White, and White. Although the persons of "indígena pura" heritage represented 12.8% of Chihuahua's state population in 1921, the actual number of people speaking indigenous languages amounted to 25,772 persons five years of age or more, or 6.4% of the total population. The two most commonly spoken languages in 1921 were the Tarahumara (23,585) and Tepehuán (1,741). The 1921 Mexican Census: Racial Classifications in Chihuahua % of Total State Racial Classification No. of Persons Population Indígena Pura 51,228 12.76% Indígena Mezclada con 201,182 50.09% Blanca Blanca 145,926 36.33% Question Ignored or Other 3,286 0.82% Classifications Total Population 401,622 100% Speakers of Indigenous 25,772 6.4% Languages Sources: Departamento de la Estadística Nacional, Annuario de 1930: Estados Unidos Mexicanos (Tacubaya, Distrito Federal, 1932), pp. 48-50; Departamento de la Estadistica Nacional, Estados Unidos Mexicanos, "Censos General de Habitantes: 30 de Noviembre de 1921, Estado de Chihuahua," (Mexico, Distrito Federal: Talleres Graficos de la Nación, 1926), pp. 20, 24. Copyright © 2019 by John P. Schmal. All Rights Reserved. 29#30Comparing Chihuahua to Other States: 1921 Census The states of Chihuahua and its western neighbor Sonora had a larger than average percent of "Blanca" residents in 1921 than other northern Mexican states. They also had much smaller populations of "pure indigenous" people than their neighbors and much of the rest of Mexico. Indígena Mezclada State Indígena Pura (% of Total State Population) con Blanca (% of State Population) Blanca (% of State Extranjeros sin distinción de razas Population) (% of State Population) Sonora 13.78% 40.38% 41.85% 2.05% Chihuahua 12.76% 50.09% 36.33% 0.82% Baja California 7.72% 72.50% 0.35% 19.33% Sinaloa 0.93% 98.30% 0.19% 0.58% Durango 9.90% 89.10% 0.01% 0.15% The Mexican 29.16% 59.33% 9.80% 0.71% Republic Classifications: Indígena Pura (Pure Indigenous Origins); Indígena Mezclada con Blanca (Indigenous Mixed with White); Blanca (White); Extranjeros sin distinction de razas (Foreigners without racial distinction) One percent of the population of the Republic of Mexico chose a fifth option: "Cualquiera otra o que se ignora la raza" (persons who chose to ignore the question or "other." Sources: Departamento de la Estadística Nacional, Annuario de 1930: Estados Unidos Mexicanos (Tacubaya, Distrito Federal, 1932), pp. 48- 50; Departamento de la Estadistica Nacional, Estados Unidos Mexicanos, "Censos General de Habitantes: 30 de Noviembre de 1921, Estado de Chihuahua," (Mexico, Distrito Federal: Talleres Graficos de la Nación, 1926), pp. 20, 24. 30#31Monolingualism in Chihuahua (1930-2010) From 1930 to 2010, the monolingual rate of Chihuahua's indigenous speaking population dropped from nearly one-half (47.7%) to 12.4%. While Chihuahua's indigenous speaking population increased numerically (not in percentage), monolingual speakers numbered less than 15,000 in every census except 1980. Chihuahua - The Population of Monolingual Indigenous Language Speakers (1930-2010) Year Speakers of Indigenous Languages Who Are Monolingual (1) Monolingual Speakers of Indigenous Languages as a Percentage of all Indigenous Speakers (%) Speakers of Indigenous Languages in Chihuahua (1) 1930 13,876 29,111 47.7% 1940 12,304 26,630 46.2% 1950 9,707 22,448 43.2% 1960 10,973 41,280 26.6% 1970 8,662 26,309 32.9% 1980 15,258 68,504 22.3% 1990 10,628 61,504 17.3% 2000 14,047 84,086 16.7% 2010 (1) 13,566 109,378 12.4% (1) From 1930 to 2000, indigenous speakers are persons five years of age and more. For 2010, indigenous speakers are persons three years of age and more. Sources: INEGI. Censo de Población y Vivienda 2010: Tabulados del Cuestionario Básico: Población de 3 Años y Más por Entidad Federativa, Sexo y Grupos Quinquenales de Edad Según Condición de Habla Indígena y Condición de Habla Española; INEGI, La Población Hablante de Lengua Indígena de Chihuahua. XII Censo General de Población y Vivienda 2000. Aguascalientes, Aguascalientes, 2004, p. 24., pp. 19, 24. Copyright © 2019 by John P. Schmal. All Rights Reserved. 31#32Indigenous Chihuahua Today Today, the Indigenous Chihuahua population Is located primarily in the southern And southwestern portions of the state. In 2010, 109,378 persons 3 years of age and older spoke indigenous languages. Of these, 78% spoke Tarahumara and 8% spoke the Tepehuanes language. Pima Guarijio Map Source: Diego Castro, "Mapa de Distribución de Grupos Etnicos en Chihuahua 2005" (Jan. 28, 2007). Tepehuanes del Norte Copyright © 2019 by John P. Schmal. All Rights Reserved. Tarahumara 32#33Indigenous Chihuahua in 2010 - - In 2010, Chihuahua had a 3,116,723 inhabitants three years of age and older, of which 109,378 or 3.5% of the population were speakers of indigenous languages. But 8.5% of the population considered themselves to be indigenous by cultural background. The 2010 Census: Indigenous Languages Spoken in Chihuahua Indigenous Language Population 3 Years and Older Who Speak an Tarahumara Tepehuano de Chihuahua (Tepehuano del Norte) Unspecified Indigenous Language Mixteco Náhuatl Zapoteco Guarijío Chinanteco Mazahua Total Percent of all Indigenous Speakers Indigenous Language 85,316 78.0% 8,396 7.7% 5,986 5.5% 2,500 2.3% 1,286 1.2% 894 0.8% 887 0.8% 839 0.8% 803 0.7% 109,378 100.0% Source: INEGI. Censo de Población y Vivienda 2010: Tabulados del Cuestionario Básico: Población de 3 Años y Más Que Habla Lengua Indígena por Entidad Federativa y Lengua. Copyright © 2019 by John P. Schmal. All Rights Reserved. 33#34Chihuahua's Most Indigenous Municipios in 2010 Two Chihuahua municipios - Guachochi and Guadalupe y Calvo - contained nearly 39% of Chihuahua's indigenous speaking population in 2010. Tarahumara and Tepehuanes are among the few surviving indigenous languages from Chihuahua's pre-Hispanic past. Chihuahua's Most Indigenous Municipios (2010 Census) Population of Persons 3 Years of Age and Municipio More Who % of Total Indigenous Population in Second Most Most Spoken Language in % Spoken Language in % the Municipio Speak an the State the Municipio Indigenous Language Guachochi 27,967 25.6% Tarahumara 98.3% Tepehuano 0.6% Guadalupe y Calvo 14,341 13.1% Tepehuano 55.3% Tarahumara 42.5% Urique 9,060 8.3% Tarahumara 97.1% Various 2.9% Balleza 7,856 7.2% Tarahumara 97.5% Tepehuano 0.3% Juárez 6,680 6.1% Tarahumara 12.7% Náhuatl 10.0% Chihuahua 6,615 6.0% Tarahumara 66.6% Náhuatl 2.9% Batopilas 6,462 5.9% Tarahumara 99.2% Various 0.8% Bocoyna 5,773 5.3% Tarahumara 98.6% Various 1.4% Carichí 4,240 3.9% Tarahumara 99.7% Various 0.3% State of Chihuahua 109,378 78.0% Source: INALI, 2010 Censo: Población de 3 Años y Más por Entidad y Municipio Según Habla Indígena y Lengua. 100.0% Tarahumara Tepehuano 7.7% Copyright © 2019 by John P. Schmal. All Rights Reserved. 34#35Chihuahua's Most Indigenous Pueblos in 2015 The following map from INALI shows the location of the Guarijio, Pima, Tarahumara and Tepehuanes pueblos in Chihuahua as of 2015. CHIHUAHUA Estados Unidos de América 216500 1439 1,500 Simbologia Pueblo Indigena Quarigio Pima ⚫Tarahumara • Tepehuano del Norte Limite Internacional Chihuahua Estatal -Municipal Sonora ATLAS DE LOS PUEBLOS INDÍGENAS DE MÉXICO Golfo de California CDI 品 CON FROM ALTONAL Sinaloa 73 540 210 200 Source: Atlas de Los Pueblos Indígenas de México; Instituto Nacional de los Pueblos Indígenas (INALI), "Chihuahua: Distribución por Entidad Federativa: Pueblos Indígenas con Mayor Presencia en la Entidad" (2018). Chihuahua Durango Copyright © 2019 by John P. Schmal. 35 All Rights Reserved.