#1The History of Indigenous Zacatecas: A Frontier Battleground by John P. Schmal October 2019#2The State of Zacatecas As the eighth largest state of Mexico, Zacatecas has a square area of 75,284 square kilometers (29,067 square miles), equal to 3.84% of the national territory. The State of Zacatecas is divided into fifty-eight municipios, with the City of Zacatecas as its capital. In 2010, Zacatecas had a population of 1,579,209 people, ranking it No. 25 among the Mexican states in terms of population. The capital of the State is Zacatecas, which had a population of 129,011 in 2010, representing 8.2% of the state's total population. DURANGO NAYARIT N COAHUILA ZACATECAS NUEVO LEÓN SAN LUIS POTOSÍi AGUASCALIENTES JALISCO GUANAJUATO Map Source: Enciclopedia de Los Municipios y Delegaciones de México: Estado de Zacatecas. Medio Físico. Online: http://siglo.inafed.gob.mx/enciclopedia/EMM32zacatecas/index.html. Copyright © 2019 by John P. Schmal. All Rights Reserved. 2#3The Relief of Zacatecas Zacatecas has four physiographic provinces. The Sierra Madre Occidental Mountains occupy 39.05% of the state's area, covering the south and southwest. The Meseta del Centro (Mexican Plateau) occupies 45.11% of the state's area, covering significant parts of Zacatecas' central and northern regions. The Sierra Madre Oriental Mountains occupy 15% of the state surface, covering the northern end of the state. The Eje Neovolcánico (Neovolcanic Axis) occupies only 0.84% of the state surface in the far southeast corner of Zacatecas. Durango Aguascalientes Jalisco Mesa del Centro Sierra Madre Occidental Sierra Madre Oriental Eje Neovolcánico Sources: Cuéntame, Página de inicio / Información por entidad / Zacatecas; INEGI. Anuario Estadístico y Geográfico de Zacatecas 2017. Copyright © 2019 by John P. Schmal. All Rights Reserved. Coahuila de Zaragoza San Luis Potosí 3 Nuevo Loon#4Nueva Galicia's Indigenous People Established in 1548, the Spanish province of Nueval Galicia embraced 180,000 kilometers and included most of present-day Jalisco, Nayarit, Aguascalientes and Zacatecas. Across this broad range of territory, a wide array of indigenous groups lived during the Sixteenth Century. Domingo Lázaro de Arregui, in his Descripción de la Nueva Galicia - published in 1621-wrote that 72 languages were spoken in the Spanish colonial province of Nueva Galicia. REINO DE NUEVA GALICIA CAPITAL GUADALAJARA NUEVA GALICIA 1548 www.paratodomexico.com Mapa del Reino de Nueva Galicia en 1548 Map Source: Sarumo74, "Nueva Galicia Nueva España 1548," Wikimedia Commons Para Todo México [Published May 1, 2018]. Source: Domingo Lázaro de Arregui, "Descripción de la Nueva Galicia" (Dec. 24, 1621). 4 Copyright © 2019 by John P. Schmal. All Rights Reserved.#5Naciones Chichimecas Nueva España, ca. 1550 Guachichiles The Chichimeca Nations of "La Gran Chichimeca" "Chichimecas" was the collective name for a wide range of indigenous groups living throughout Zacatecas, San Luis Potosí, Jalisco, Aguascalientes, Jalisco and Zacatecas Pames Zacatecos Otomís Tepecanos Guamares Caxcanes Tecuexes Poblados Caminos Guanajuato. The Chichimecs were not a single people sharing a common language, but consisted of several indigenous groups living through the large swathe of territory known to the Spaniards as "La Gran Chichimeca." Guanajuato Guadalajara México Veracruz Acapulco Antequera Source: Philip Wayne Powell, "Soldiers, Indians and Silver: North America's First Frontier War" (Tempe, Arizona: Center for Latin American Studies, Arizona State University, 1973); Map Source: Grin20, "Map Depicting Geographic Expanse of Chichimeca nations, ca. 1550" at Wikipedia, "Chichimeca War" (Published Jan. 4, 2012). Copyright © 2019 by John P. Schmal. All Rights Reserved.#6The Zacatecos Indians The Zacatecos Indians occupied much of what is now western and northern Zacatecas, as well as Aguascalientes, southern Coahuila and eastern Durango as far west as the City of Durango. As indicated by the map on this page, the lands of the Zacatecos Indians bordered with those of the Tepehuanes on the west, the Guachichiles on the east and the Caxcanes and Tecuexes on the south. It is believed that the Zacatecos were named by Náhuatl speakers after the tall grasslands (Zacatlán, "place of grass") they inhabited. The Zacatecos were believed to be related to the Caxcanes tribe that lived on their southern border and have been classified within the Uto-Aztecan Language family. Tepehuanes Conation El Salto Durango Acaponeta Tecos Nazos El Mezquital ■Itzcuintla Huaynamotas •Теріс Xalisco Compostela Source: Philip Wayne Powell, "Soldiers, Indians and Silver: North America's First Frontier War" (1973); Map Source: AndresXXV, "Mapa del Territorio de los Zacatecos" (April 4, 2013). Gomez Palacio Cuencomé Laguneros ■Torreon Miguel Auzo - Río Grande Parras Concepción del oro • Sombrerete Zacatecos .Fresnillo Guachichiles Calera Valparaiso Zacatecas+ Guadalupe Salinas Jerez Villanueva Loreto Tebecatos El Nayar Coras Pinos Huicholes Aguascalientes Tlaltenango Caxcanes Juchipila San Miguel Yohuolica Extlan ■Leon Guamares Tecuexes Son Froficisco Amecas ■ Guadalajara Silao 6 Copyright © 2019 by John P. Schmal. All Rights Reserved.#7The Silver Industry and Zacatecas The Zacatecos lived in the region where the Spaniards would discover and develop rich silver mines in 1546. In 1546, Juan de Tolosa discovered silver on the hill of La Bufa, near the present- day City of Zacatecos. The development of the mining industry in Zacatecas led to the development of extensive communications networks, making Zacatecas the axis of an extensive economic space consisting of cities, towns, villages, ranches, haciendas and other mining centers. Zacatecas, producing one-fifth of all of the colony's silver, became the third largest city in colonial Mexico during the 1500s. ZACATECAS with active links To Toriedn DURANGO To Durango Sierra de Organos M Rio Grande Sombrerete Alta Vista Valparaiso Fresnillo Plateros Sierra de Jerez Cardos JALISCO Tlaltenango To Salvo COAHUILA Mazapil Concepción del Oro San Tiburcio Zacatecas Guadalupe Quemada Villanueva SAN LUIS POTOSI N Ojo Caliente Villa Hidalgo To San Luis AGUASCALIENTES GTO Jalpa Teúl To Lagos de Moreno & Guadala To cand kilometers miles 50 2003 by Tony Burton 100 Map Source: Tony Burton, Interactive Map of Zacatecas. Mexconnect, Copyright 2009. Copyright © 2019 by John P. Schmal. All Rights Reserved. 7#8Zacatecas: A Magnet for Indigenous Labor In the next two decades, rich mineral- bearing deposits would also be discovered farther north in San Martín (1556), 104 * VELARDEÑA 102 Chalchihuites (1556), Avino (1558), Sombrerete (1558), Fresnillo (1566), Mazapil (1568), and Nieves (1574). According to Dana Velasco Murillo, the author of "Urban Indians in a Silver City," by the 1550s, the Zacatecas mines brought in "a consistent influx of indigenous immigrants from western and central Mexico" because they were given exemptions from tribute collection. Wages and exemptions served as "pull" factors for migrants, while the heavy tribute obligations in central Mexican communities functioned as "push” factors. Sources: Dana Velasco Murillo, "Urban Indians in a Silver City: Zacatecas, Mexico, 1546-1810" (Stanford University Press, 2016); Peter Gerhard, "The North Frontier of New Spain" (Princeton University Press, 1982). AVIÑO 24% Durango PARRILLAX Sembranete 1545-2000 20 Million ez Ag 700 gT Ag 1.507 Au Sombreste 5545-2113 210 Million or Ag 700 gif Ag 1.5gT AM SAN MARTIN SOMBRERETE MESOZOIC SEDIMENTS San Martin Dist 1560-2004 > Mtion or Ag 125-600 g Ag 0.2.1 g/t Au 1553-2004 1.1 Bon oz Ag 700 g/T Ag FRESNILLO 06 T Au Zacatecas 15132001 1on or Au 933 g Ag 2.5T A ZACATECAS CENOZOIC Rode Angeles VOLCANICS on A REAL DE ANGELES 22 Aguascalientes. 104 EXPLANATION > > 1 B oz Ag 1669 1998 75-350 g/l Ag 200-500 M oz Ag 24 San Luis 22 Potosi Gomato 1437004 1.3ion or Ag 850 at Au 48T Au GUANAJUATO 102 0 100 Kilometers Map Source: Geo-Mexico: The Geography and Dynamics of Modern Mexico: Fresnillo, Mexico's Leading Silver Mining Town (Aug. 24, 2013). Copyright © 2019 by John P. Schmal. All Rights Reserved. 8#9The Zacatecos Indians and the Silver Mines The Zacatecos organized themselves in groups of loose confederations of small seminomadic settlements," which the Spaniards called rancherías. Professor Philip Wayne Powell writes that the Zacatecos were "brave and bellicose warriors and excellent marksmen." They were greatly feared by the neighboring tribes, in particular the Caxcanes, whom they frequently attacked. The Zacatecos were also reputed to be "great enemies" and "constantly at war with" their neighbors to the east, the Guachichiles, until they both acquired the Spaniards as a common enemy in the 1550s. The strategic location of the Zacatecas mines made confrontation with both the Zacatecos and Guachichiles inevitable. Early on, the Spaniards attempted to preserve peaceful relations with the local Indians, but early indications of antagonistic intent soon became evident. Mr. Gerhard writes that "the rush of treasure-seekers and the opening of cart-roads from central Mexico to these mines" led to a "displacement of desert tribes" that brought on "a fierce struggle (the Chichimec war) that kept the northern frontier aflame from sea to sea for four decades (1550-1590)." Copyright 2019 by John P. Schmal. All Rights Reserved. Source: Philip Wayne Powell, "Soldiers, Indians and Silver: North America's First Frontier War" (1973). 6#10The Guachichiles The Guachichile Indians were the most populous Chichimeca nation, occupying about 100,000 square kilometers, from Lake Chapala in Jalisco to modern Saltillo in Coahuila. The Guachichiles inhabited all of eastern Zacatecas and portions of eastern Jalisco and western San Luis Potosí. The name "Guachichil" was given to them by the Mexica, and meant "head colored red" (Quaítl = head; Chichitic = red). They had been given this label because they wore red feather headdresses, painted their bodies and their hair red, and wore head coverings (bonetillas) made of hides and painted red. Indigenous Zacatecas, circa 1550s "ZACATECAS-Indigenous Groups at Contact Navarit Durango Rio Grande Coahuila Melchor Ocampo Mazap Concepción del Om Nieyes GUACHICHIL Somberete Sin Alto Jiménez de Tiral ZACATECOS Presnillo de Gonzalez Echeveria TEPEHUANES Canita de Fellpe Pescador Panuco Zacatecas Valparaiso Sustipoin Malpaso Op Caliente Tepjongo Villanueva Monte Escobedo Momax Aguascalientes Huanusco Andling Nuevo Leon San Luis Potosí Villa Hidalgo Pinos Villa Garcin Jalpa CAZCANES Jalis in Giran Jualo Nochistiin ●Bentojuáruz TECUEXES Mesquite del Oro Estado de Zacatecas Sources: Stacy B. Schaefer and Peter T. Furst (eds.), "People of the Peyote: Huichol Indian History, Religion, and Survival" (1996); Philip Wayne Powell, "Soldiers, Indians and Silver: North America's First Frontier War" (1973). ©Copyright 2003, Eddie Martinez and John Schmal Copyright 2019 by John P. Schmal. All Rights Reserved. 10#11The Guachichiles The Spanish frontiersmen and contemporary writers referred to the Guachichiles "as being the most ferocious, the most valiant, and the most elusive" of all their indigenous adversaries It is believed that the Guachichile Indians were closely related to the Huichol Indians, who continue to live in Nayarit and the northern fringes of Zacatecas in the present day era... Consider the similarity of "Guachil" and "Huichol" - the theory states that the Huichol were a subgroup that moved to the west and developed their own culture and language. Historians believe that the Guachichiles were the most skilled of the Chichimecas in developing tribal alliances. They were a major catalyst in provoking the other tribes to resist the Spanish settlement and exploitation of Indian lands. "Their strategic position in relation to Spanish mines and highways," wrote Professor Powell, "made them especially effective in raiding and in escape from Spanish reprisal." They were able to quickly disappear into their territory where the Spaniards did not dare to follow. Sources: Stacy B. Schaefer and Peter T. Furst (eds.), "People of the Peyote: Huichol Indian History, Religion, and Survival" (1996); Philip Wayne Powell, "Soldiers, Indians and Silver: North America's First Frontier War" (1973). Copyright © 2019 by John P. Schmal. All Rights Reserved. 11#12The Caxcanes and Tecuexes The Caxcanes Indians occupied portions of Aguascalientes, southern Zacatecas and northern Jalisco. Prof. Phil C. Weigand theorized that the Caxcan Indians probably originated in the Chalchihuites area of northwestern Zacatecas and moved south after 1000 A.D. Dr. Weigand has also studied the Tecuexes Indians who occupied a considerable area of Jalisco north of Guadalajara and western Los Altos, including Jalostotitlán, Tepatitilán and Yahualica, but very little of Zacatecas. Source: Phil C. Weigand, "Considerations on the Archaeology and Ethnohistory of the Mexicaneros, Tequales, Coreas, Huicholes, and Caxcanes of Nayarit, Jalisco, and Zacatecas." In Contributions to the Archaeology and Ethnohistory of Greater Mesoamerica (1985). CAXCANES EL TEUL JUCHITA GUADALAJARA NOCHISTEAN ZACATECAS TEOCALTICHE AGUASCALIENTES TECUEXES The territory of the Caxcanes overlapped with the Zacatecos, while the territory of the Tecuexes overlapped with the Guachichiles, Guamares and Cocas. Aguascalientes was primarily dominated. by Caxcanes, Zacatecos and Tecuexes. Copyright © 2019 by John P. Schmal. All Rights Reserved. 12#13The Caxcanes as Conquerors Prof. Weigand has theorized that, after the collapse of the Chalchihuites culture around 1000 A.D., "the Caxcanes began a prolonged period of southern expansion" into parts of northeastern Jalisco. By the time of the Spanish contact, Prof. Weigand observed that the Caxcanes "appear to have been organized into highly competitive, expansion states. These states possessed well-developed social hierarchies, monumental architecture, and military brotherhoods." In what is now northeastern Jalisco, the Tecuexes were frequently at odds with their other neighbors to the north, the Caxcanes. It is believed that Caxcanes originally invaded the territory of the Tecuexes in the area of Tlatenango, Juchipila, Nochistlán (Zacatecas) and Teocaltiche (Jalisco) during the pre-Hispanic era. The Caxcanes and Tecuexes in this area continued with their hostilities for as many as 260 years until the arrival of the Spaniards. Source: Phil C. Weigand, "Considerations on the Archaeology and Ethnohistory of the Mexicaneros, Tequales, Coreas, Huicholes, and Caxcanes of Nayarit, Jalisco, and Zacatecas." In Contributions to the Archaeology and Ethnohistory of Greater Mesoamerica edited by William J. Folan, pp. 126-187 (Carbondale, Illinois: Center for Archaeological Investigations, Southern Illinois University Press, 1985). 13 Copyright © 2019 by John P. Schmal. All Rights Reserved.#14The Territory of the Caxcanes The Caxcanes inhabited a wide area that included Tlatenango, Nochistlán and Jalpa (now in southern Zacatecas) and Teocaltiche and Atemanica (now in Jalisco). They were frequently at war with the Tecuexes and pushed the latter to the south. In the Flores map below, the Caxcanes are represented by the dark pyramid symbol. ΑΘ Susticacán ZACATECAS Nostic L ochotita (Rahueyapa) uayabas (Temoliquita) Tateiquis) Colotián Tepec Axquaitán Husjónar Diego Tocatic Tlaltenango Tepechitian Sta Maria de los Angeles Momax Bapames Caxcanes Coras. AGUASCALIENTES Aguascalientes Cocas Cuachichiles Cuyutecos (Nahuas). Huicholes Nahuas Otomies (Chichimeca). Pinomes DOO Atemanica Sn. Lucas Xalpa Sn. Pedro Sn. Miguel Teul Nochistián Apozol Juchipila Moyahua A Teocaltiche Nangué Mexticacan Huisculco Manallaco Yahualica Tarascos Tecuejes. Tzaultecas Tepehuanes. Técoz Source: José Ramírez Flores, "Lenguas Indígenas de Jalisco" (Guadalajara, Jalisco: Gobierno de Jalisco, 1980). 14#15Tepehuanes The Tepehuán Indians were the indigenous group that inhabited the most extensive area among the Sierra Madre native groups. Linguistically, the Tepehuanes belonged to the Piman division of the Uto-Aztecan linguistic stock. Anthropologists have divided this group into southern and northern groups who speak different dialects of the Tepehuán language. The southern Tepehuán language varies considerably from that of the Northern Tepehuán (whose speakers live in Chihuahua). The Southern Tepehuán inhabited an extensive region of the Sierra Madre Mountains in parts of present-day Jalisco, Nayarit, Zacatecas and Durango. The territory of the Tepehuanes is believed to have stretched as far north as Parral in Chihuahua and as far south as Río Grande de Santiago in Jalisco. In Zacatecas, the Tepehuán inhabited the region around Sombrerete in the west central portion of the state. The first Jesuits, bearing gifts of seeds, tools, clothing and livestock, went to work among the Tepehuanes in 1596 and converted most of them by 1616. It is believed that the Tepehuán Indians received their name from the Náhuatl terms tepetl, "mountain," and huan, "at the junction of." Thus, they were "mountain people." The Tepehuanes did not become involved in operations against the Spaniards in the Chichimeca War. The historian Charlotte M. Gradie has discussed in great deal the Tepehuanes and their famous revolt that began in 1616 and ravaged much of Durango. 15#16The Mixtón Rebellion (1540-1541) In 1530, Nuño de Guzmán's army of Spaniards and conscripted Indian auxiliaries ravaged through many parts of Jalisco, Zacatecas and Nayarit. Guzmán's left a trail of destroyed villages and crops, terrorizing the native peoples with unprovoked killing, torture and enslavement. The long-range implications of Guzmán's reign of terror were realized in 1540 when the Mixtón Rebellion pitted the indigenous people of Jalisco and southern Zacatecas against Spanish rule. Under the leadership of Tenamaxtli, the Caxcanes and Tecuexe Indians fortified their positions near Mixtón, Nochistlán, and other towns and even laid siege to Guadalajara. However, the Spaniards counterattacked with great determination. and, by December 8, 1541, most of the indigenous resistance had ended. In the aftermath, many of the Caxcanes were enslaved by the Spaniards. Indigenous Pueblos Taking Part in the Mixtón Rebellion Tlaltenango Coringa Huaynamota Mixton Jalpa Teúl Huazamota- -Teocaliche Xuchipila Hochiztlán -Guadalajara -Coyna Compostela Etzatlán Tecuila Tesistán Tzintzuntzan Puerto de Havidad Map Source: Jaontiveros, "Mapa de los Pueblos de Nayarit, Zacatecas y Jalisco Que se Levantaron en Armas Durante la Guerra del Mixtón" (March 16, 2009). 16 Copyright © 2019 by John P. Schmal. All Rights Reserved.#17The Chichimeca War Begins (1550) In 1550, Zacatecos attacked, robbed and killed travelers on the road to the Zacatecas mines, thus beginning the four-decade La Guerra de los Chichimecas (The War of the Chichimecas). In the years to follow, the Zacatecos and Guachichiles frequently ambushed and assaulted travelers and merchants along the road from Mexico City to Zacatecas. The attacks along this road disrupted the mining operations and delayed the transport of the silver bullion southward to help sustain the Spanish Empire. The Chichimecas also plundered north-bound supply caravans and seized their livestock. The Chichimecas had been used to eating small game animals but soon became enthusiastic consumers of the stolen Spanish livestock, especially horses and mules. Source: Philip Wayne Powell, "Soldiers, Indians and Silver: North America's First Frontier War" (1973). San Mari uadalajara Mochis Zacatecas Map Caminos y poblados en la frontera norte de Nueva España ca. 1550 Poblado Camino Real México-Zacatecas Otros Caminos Querétaro Celaya Rio Lerma Vala Acabar Verde Jxpe Mexico Map Source: Grin20, "Map of the of Northern Viceroyalty of New Spain (Colonial Mexico)" (Jan. 5, 2012). 17 Copyright © 2019 by John P. Schmal. All Rights Reserved.#18The Chichimeca War (1550-1590) In 1554, the worst disaster of all took place when Chichimeca Indians attacked a Spanish caravan of sixty wagons with an armed escort in the Ojuelos Pass. In addition to inflicting great loss of life, the Chichimecas carried off more than 30,000 pesos worth of clothing, silver, and other valuables. In the years to follow, the majority of the attacks were aimed primarily at highway traffic to and from the new silver mines and at estancias (small cattle ranches) in or near the land of war. The Indians preferred to attack the silver caravans in a narrow pass, in rocky terrain, or in places with sufficient forestation to conceal their approach. They usually ambushed their victims at dawn or dusk and struck with great speed. Professor Powell wrote that "surprise, nudity, body paint, shouting, and rapid shooting were all aimed at terrifying the intended victims and their animals. There is ample evidence that they usually succeeded in this." Source: Philip Wayne Powell, "Soldiers, Indians and Silver: North America's First Frontier War" (1973). 18 Copyright © 2019 by John P. Schmal. All Rights Reserved.#19The Chichimeca Warrior In writing about the Chichimec way of life, Philip Wayne Powell refers to these Indians as "an elusive enemy, highly dangerous in expert use of bow and arrow and in knowledge of the land on which he fought." In hand-to-hand combat, the Chichimeca warriors gained a reputation for courage and ferocity. Even when the Chichimecas were attacked in their hideout or stronghold, Professor Powell writes, that the warriors "usually put up vigorous resistance, especially if unable to escape the onslaught." They would fight with arrows, clubs and even rocks, and in some cases, women might also take up the right, using the weapons of their fallen braves. According to Eugene B. Sego, it was the "unstructured lifestyle of the Chichimecas" that prevented their subjugation. The Spaniards had never encountered the Chichimeca style of fighting. They "almost always attacked from ambush" and favored "quick hit-and-run attacks" from which they could disappear into the surrounding mountains. Chichimecas reportedly fought nude, in full body paint, a practice that horrified the Spaniards as much as their sacrifice of war captives. They painted their faces and bodies with brilliantly-colored and striking designs." Sources: Philip Wayne Powell, "Soldiers, Indians and Silver: North America's First Frontier War" (1973); Eugene B. Sego, "Six Tlaxcalan Colonies on New Spain's Northern Frontier: A Comparison of Success and Failure" (Ph.D. Thesis: Ann Arbor, Michigan, 1990). 19 Copyright © 2019 by John P. Schmal. All Rights Reserved.#20The Chichimecas: Assimilation & Mestizaje Unable to decisively defeat the native groups, the Spanish initiated a "peace by purchase" policy, which bribed the Chichimecas to make peace by offering them a more luxurious existence with the trappings of the so-called "civilized world." At strategically located depots, the Spaniards offered the Chichimecas vast quantities of food (mostly maize and beef) and clothing (woolen cloth, coarse blankets, woven petticoats, shirts, hats and capes). They also received agricultural implements, including plows, hoes, axes, hatchets, leather saddles, and slaughtering knives. Soon Christian Indians were brought from the south (Tlaxcalans, Aztecs, Otomies and Tarascans) and settled among the Chichimecas to help them adapt to their new existence. The peace offensive and missionary efforts of the Spaniards were so successful that within a few years, the Zacatecos and Guachichiles had settled down to peaceful living within the small settlements that now dotted the Zacatecas landscape. Working in the fields and mines alongside their Indian brethren, the Chichimeca Indians were very rapidly assimilated and, as historian Phillip Wayne Powell writes, "The Sixteenth-century land of war thus became fully Mexican in its mixture." Source: Philip Wayne Powell, "Soldiers, Indians and Silver: North America's First Frontier War" (Tempe, Arizona: Center for Latin American Studies, Arizona State University, 1973). 20 Copyright © 2019 by John P. Schmal. All Rights Reserved.#21Racial Classifications of Former Nueva Galicia States in 1921 In the 1921 census, the Mexican states that had previously been part of Nueva Galicia had high rates of mestizaje (mixed racial identity), while smaller numbers of citizens considered themselves to be pure indigenous. San Luis Potosí — the home of the eastern Guachichiles is an exception, with one in three residents being - classified as pure indigenous. Racial Makeup of Native-Born Mexicans (from the 1921 Census) © Copyright 2019, John P. Schmal. All Rights Reserved. Indígena State Indígena Pura (Pure Indígena Pura (% of Mezclada Percentage of Indígena Total State con Blanca Mezclada Total State Population Indigenous) Population) (Mixed) con Blanca Aguascalientes 17,961 16.70% 71,137 66.12% 107,581 Guanajuato 25,458 2.96% 828,724 96.32% 860,364 Jalisco 199,728 16.76% 903,830 75.83% 1,191,957 San Luis Potosí 136,365 30.60% 275,812 61.89% 445,681 Zacatecas 32,422 8.55% 326,615 86.10% 379,329 Mexican Republic 4,179,449 29.16% 8,504,561 59.33% 14,334,780 Source: Departamento de la Estadística Nacional, “Annuario de 1930" (Tacubaya, Distrito Federal, 1932). 21 Copyright 2019 by John P. Schmal. All Rights Reserved.#22Indigenous Languages in the Tri-State Region (2010) Indigenous Language Indigenous Languages Spoken in the 2010 Census Aguascalientes Population of Persons 3 Jalisco Population of Persons 3 Years of Age Percent of Years of Age or More Who Indigenous or More Who Speakers Speak an Zacatecas Population of Persons 3 Percent of Years of Age Percent of Indigenous or More Who Indigenous Speakers Speak an Indigenous Speakers Speak an Indigenous Indigenous Language Language Language Huichol 107 4.3% 18,409 34.3% 1,003 19.4% Náhuatl 391 15.7% 11,650 21.7% 503 9.8% Purépecha 52 2.1% 3,960 7.4% 100 1.9% Mixteco 60 2.4% 2,001 3.7% 111 2.2% Zapoteco 87 3.5% 1,637 3.0% 137 2.7% Mazahua 176 7.1% 1,009 1.9% 151 2.9% Other 1,620 64.9% 15,029 28.0% 3,152 61.1% Total Indigenous Speakers 2,493 100% 53,695 100% 5,157 100% Source: INEGI, Censo de Población y Vivienda 2010: Tabulados del Cuestionario Básico. Other languages spoken in the three states include Mixe, Maya, Huasteco, Otomí, Tepehuanes and unspecified languages. Copyright © 2019 by John P. Schmal. All Rights Reserved. 22 22#23Zacatecas Languages in 2010 In the 2010 census, nearly one-third of indigenous speakers 3 years and older in Zacatecas census did not specify which language they spoke. Huicholes represented the single largest category of indigenous speakers in the State (19.4%). The 2010 Census: Indigenous Languages Spoken in Zacatecas Indigenous Language Unspecified Indigenous Language Huichol Population 3 Years and Older Who Speak an Indigenous Language 1,631 Percent of all Indigenous Speakers 31.6% 19.4% Náhuatl Tepehuano Tlapaneco Tepehuano de Durango Mazahua Zapoteco Mixteco Purépecha (Tarasco) All Zacatecas Indigenous Speakers 1,003 503 9.8% 492 9.5% 381 7.4% 328 6.4% 151 2.9% 137 2.7% 111 2.2% 100 1.9% 5,157 100% Source: INEGI. Censo de Población y Vivienda 2010: Tabulados del Cuestionario Básico: Población de 3 años y más Que Habla Lengua Indígena por Entidad Federativa y Lengua. Copyright © 2019 by John P. Schmal. All Rights Reserved. 23 23#24The Huicholes in the 2010 Census In 2010, 44,788 Huichol speakers 5 years of age and more lived throughout the Mexican Republic, and 91% of them lived in either Nayarit or Jalisco, the traditional Huichol homeland. Only 2% lived in Zacatecas. As noted in the following table, 14% of the Huicholes in the Mexican Republic were monolingual (did not speak Spanish). Nayarit Jalisco State Durango Zacatecas Baja California Aguascalientes Other States Mexican Republic Huichol Language Speakers in the Mexican Republic (2010) Population 5 Years and Over that Speaks the Huichol Language % of the Population 5 Years and Over that Speaks the Huichol Language in Population 5 Years and Over that Speaks % the Huichol Language Monolingual (Monolingual) Mexico 23,834 53% 1,972 8% 17,118 38% 4,088 24% 1,889 4% 69 4% 940 2% 28 3% 202 0% 0 0% 103 0% 0 0% 702 2% 5 1% 44,788 100% 6,162 14% Source: INEGI, Censo de Población y Vivienda 2010: Tabulados del Cuestionario Básico: Población de 5 Años y Más Que Habla Lengua Indígena por Entidad Federativa y Lengua Según Condición de Habla Española y Sexo. Copyright © 2019 by John P. Schmal. All Rights Reserved. 24#25The Indigenous Municipios of Zacatecas (2010) In the 2010 Mexican census, of Zacatecas' 58 municipios, only four Zacatecas municipios had 1.0% or more people who spoke indigenous languages. In 2010, the municipio of Fresnillo had 1,210 persons 3 years of age or older who spoke indigenous languages, of which 250 were Huichol. Valparaíso ― with the second largest number of indigenous speakers had the highest percentage (2.5%). - - Most Indigenous Municipios of Zacatecas (2010 Census) Persons 3 Years of Age and More Who % Indigenous Total Municipio Municipios Speak Population in Speaking Population 3 Dominant Indigenous Indigenous 2010 Years of Age Languages Languages in and More Municipio Valparaíso 773 31,351 2.5% Tepehuán del Sur Tlaltenango 387 23,775 1.6% Huichol Pánuco 185 15,392 1.2% Náhuatl General Enrique Estrada 57 5,536 1.0% Huichol Fresnillo 1,210 196,140 0.6% Huichol The Other 53 Municipios 2,545 1,114,843 0.2% Huichol Huichol, Náhuatl, State of Zacatecas 5,157 1,387,037 0.4% Source: INALI, 2010 Censo: Población de 3 Años y Más Por Entidad y Municipio según Habla Indígena y Lengua. Tepehuán del Sur Copyright © 2019 by John P. Schmal. All Rights Reserved. 25#26The 2015 Intercensal Survey INEGI's 2015 Intercensal Survey, published in 2016, indicated that the % of people who are traditionally indigenous exceeds the % of people who actually speak indigenous languages. The data for Zacatecas and other selected states are shown below. State Linguistic and Ethnic Identity in Mexico (2015) Status No. 1 in Mexico % of the Total Population That Consider Themselves to be % of Persons 3 Years of Age and Older Who Speak an Indigenous Language 32.2% Oaxaca Yucatán Michoacán Guanajuato Aguascalientes Jalisco Zacatecas The Mexican Republic Indigenous 65.7% No. 2 in Mexico 65.4% 28.9% No. 11 in Mexico 27.7% 3.6% No. 25 in Mexico 9.1% 0.2% No. 22 in Mexico 11.7% 0.3% No. 24 in Mexico 11.1% 0.8% No. 29 in Mexico 7.6% 0.3% All States Combined 21.5% 6.5% Source: INEGI, "Principales resultados de la Encuesta Intercensal 2015. Estado Unidos Mexicanos: III: Etnicidad." Online: http://www.senado.gob.mx/comisiones/asuntos_indigenas/eventos/docs/etnicidad_240216.pdf Copyright © 2019 by John P. Schmal. All Rights Reserved. 26 26